References

  1. National Pharmaceutical Council and Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatments. Reston, VA: National Pharmaceutical Council; 2001.
  2. Carver A. Pain. In: Dale DC, Federman DD, eds. ACP Medicine. New York, NY: WebMD; 2005:1-18.
  3. Hudspith MJ, Siddall PJ, Munglani R. Physiology of pain. In: Hemming HC, Hopkins PM, eds. Foundations of Anesthesia. 2nd ed. London, UK: Mosby; 2006:267-285.
  4. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science. 1965;150(3699):971-979.
  5. American Pain Society. Principles of Analgesic Use in the Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pain. 5th ed. Glenview, IL: American Pain Society; 2003.
  6. Gutstein HB, Akil H. Opioid analgesics. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, eds. Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 10th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001:569.
  7. Ballantyne JC, Mao J. Opioid therapy for chronic pain. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(20):1943-1953.
  8. Gardner-Nix J. Principles of opioid use in chronic noncancer pain. CMAJ. 2003;169(1):38-43.
  9. Schneider P. Chronic pain management in older adults: with coxibs under fire, what now? Geriatrics. 2005;60(5):26-31.
  10. Raffa RB. Opioid analgesics and antagonists. In: Quick Look Medicine: Pharmacology. Madison, CT: Fence Creek Publishing; 1999:120-121.
  11. Portenoy RK, Farrar JT, Backonja M-M, et al. Long-term use of controlled-release oxycodone for noncancer pain: results of a 3-year registry study. Clin J Pain. 2007;23(4):287-299.
  12. Mahowald ML, Singh JA, Majeski P. Opioid use by patients in an orthopedics spine clinic. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52(1):312-321.
  13. Dews TE, Mekhail N. Safe use of opioids in chronic noncancer pain. Cleve Clin J Med. 2004;71(11):897-904.
  14. American Pain Society. Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain. Glenview, IL: American Pain Society; 2001.
  15. Kirsh KL. Disease management tools for chronic pain. Manag Care. 2007;16(2)(suppl 3):10-15.
  16. Lipman AG. Treatment options for chronic pain management: opioids revisited. Manag Care. 2007;16(2)(suppl 3):7-11.
  17. United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control. Practitioner’s Manual. An Informational Outline of the Controlled Substances Act. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office; 2006.